Reading Machiavelli

Harvey Mansfield and Leo Strauss are two of the most influential scholars of Machiavelli in the 20th and 21st centuries. Their work has profoundly shaped modern interpretations of Machiavelli's political philosophy and its impact on the development of modernity. This essay will examine Mansfield and Strauss's key arguments about Machiavelli, comparing and contrasting their approaches while exploring the broader implications of their analysis.

Strauss's Interpretation of Machiavelli

Leo Strauss's seminal work "Thoughts on Machiavelli" (1958) presents a provocative and deeply influential reading of Machiavelli as a revolutionary thinker who deliberately sought to overthrow traditional morality and classical political philosophy. For Strauss, Machiavelli represents a radical break with the past and the inauguration of modernity.

Machiavelli as Teacher of Evil

Strauss argues that "the most visible fact about Machiavelli's doctrine is also the most useful one: Machiavelli seems to be a teacher of wickedness". This stark characterization sets the tone for Strauss's interpretation, which takes seriously the idea that Machiavelli's work represents a deliberate assault on traditional morality and virtue.

Strauss contends that Machiavelli severs the traditional connection between biblical theology/natural law and morality, reorienting philosophy away from virtue and towards freedom and power. As Strauss puts it, "A stupendous contraction of the horizon appears to Machiavelli and his successors as a wondrous enlargement of the horizon... the new philosophy takes its bearing by how men live as distinguished from how men ought to live".

In Strauss's view, Machiavelli's greatest sin is a radical lowering of moral expectations. Rather than upholding the primacy of moral virtue, Machiavelli's ends-justify-the-means philosophy opens the door to moral relativism and unbridled self-interest. This represents a profound challenge to both classical and Christian conceptions of virtue and the good life.

Machiavelli's Esoteric Writing

A key aspect of Strauss's interpretation is his claim that Machiavelli wrote esoterically, concealing his most radical ideas between the lines of his texts. Strauss argues that careful analysis reveals hidden meanings and interconnections in Machiavelli's work that point to a coherent but deliberately obscured philosophical project.

For example, Strauss draws attention to apparent contradictions in Machiavelli's statements about the city of Pistoia in the Discourses, arguing that these reveal Machiavelli's true teaching about the manipulative nature of politics. This esoteric approach allows Strauss to construct an interpretation of Machiavelli as far more radical and subversive than a surface reading might suggest.

Machiavelli and Modernity

For Strauss, Machiavelli is nothing less than the founder of modernity. His work represents a decisive break with classical and Christian thought, inaugurating a new philosophical and political era. As Strauss puts it, "Machiavelli breaks with the Great Tradition and initiates the Enlightenment".

Strauss argues that Machiavelli's focus on "effectual truth" - how men actually behave rather than how they ought to behave - lays the groundwork for modern political realism and social science. Moreover, Machiavelli's emphasis on the malleability of human nature and the power of human will to shape fortune points towards the modern belief in progress and the conquest of nature.

However, Strauss sees this Machiavellian turn as ultimately destructive. By lowering moral standards and reducing philosophy to an instrument of power, Machiavelli unleashes forces that undermine the very possibility of human excellence and wisdom. For Strauss, the crisis of modernity has its roots in Machiavelli's fateful revolution.

Mansfield's Interpretation of Machiavelli

Harvey Mansfield, while deeply influenced by Strauss, develops his own distinctive interpretation of Machiavelli across numerous works, including "Machiavelli's Virtue" (1996) and "Machiavelli's Effectual Truth" (2023). Mansfield's Machiavelli is a more complex and ambiguous figure than Strauss's, though no less revolutionary in his impact.

Effectual Truth and Machiavelli's Enterprise

A central concept in Mansfield's interpretation is Machiavelli's notion of "effectual truth" (verità effettuale). For Mansfield, this represents Machiavelli's core insight and the key to understanding his broader philosophical project.

Effectual truth refers to the actual results or effects of an action, as opposed to its intended or imagined outcome. Mansfield argues that Machiavelli applies this concept not just to politics, but to his own work as a thinker and writer. As Mansfield puts it, "What is the effectual truth of the teacher of effectual truth?".

This leads Mansfield to see Machiavelli as deeply concerned with his own impact on posterity. Machiavelli aims not just to describe political reality, but to shape it through the long-term influence of his ideas. His goal is nothing less than to found a new understanding of politics and human nature that will transform the world.

Machiavelli's Critique of Christianity

Like Strauss, Mansfield sees Machiavelli as mounting a profound challenge to Christianity. However, Mansfield's analysis focuses more on Machiavelli's critique of Christian political theology and its impact on worldly affairs.

Mansfield argues that Machiavelli saw Christianity as fundamentally weakening the political realm by glorifying humility and contemplation over active virtue. Christianity's otherworldly focus and emphasis on suffering makes men weak and leaves the world "in prey to wicked men".

Moreover, Mansfield contends that Machiavelli sought to appropriate Christianity's methods of spiritual warfare and propaganda for his own philosophical revolution. Just as Christianity conquered the world through conversion, Machiavelli aims to overturn Christianity through a kind of counter-conversion to his new modes and orders.

Machiavelli and Modern Philosophy

While Strauss emphasizes Machiavelli's break with the past, Mansfield is more interested in how Machiavelli sets the stage for subsequent modern thinkers. He argues that Machiavelli's project required "successors capable of extending the project beyond him".

Mansfield traces how later thinkers like Hobbes, Locke, and Montesquieu built on Machiavelli's foundation while modifying his ideas. He sees modern political philosophy as in many ways an extended dialogue with Machiavelli, even when it seems to oppose him.

For example, Mansfield argues that Montesquieu accepts Machiavelli's focus on "effectual truth" while turning this method against Machiavelli himself. Similarly, he sees the modern emphasis on commerce as a development of Machiavelli's project to lower moral standards and focus on material interests.

Comparing Strauss and Mansfield

While Strauss and Mansfield share many core insights about Machiavelli, there are important differences in their approaches and emphases:

1. Moral Judgment: Strauss is more explicitly condemnatory of Machiavelli, calling him a "teacher of evil." Mansfield, while acknowledging Machiavelli's radical break with tradition, presents a more ambiguous picture that recognizes Machiavelli's serious moral concerns.
2. Esoteric Reading: Both scholars engage in close textual analysis to uncover hidden meanings, but Strauss places more emphasis on Machiavelli's esoteric writing. Mansfield is somewhat more cautious about claiming to have discovered Machiavelli's secret teaching.
3. Historical Context: Mansfield pays more attention to Machiavelli's immediate historical and intellectual context, particularly his relationship to Renaissance humanism. Strauss tends to read Machiavelli more as a transhistorical philosopher.
4. Modern Legacy: While both see Machiavelli as crucial to the development of modernity, Mansfield is more interested in tracing Machiavelli's positive influence on later thinkers. Strauss focuses more on the destructive consequences of Machiavelli's revolution.
5. Philosophical Ambition: Mansfield's Machiavelli is more self-consciously engaged in a grand philosophical project to reshape the world. Strauss's Machiavelli is perhaps more focused on subverting existing modes of thought.

Key Themes in Strauss and Mansfield's Machiavelli

Despite their differences, several important themes emerge from Strauss and Mansfield's collective work on Machiavelli:

The Critique of Classical and Christian Virtue

Both scholars emphasize Machiavelli's radical challenge to traditional conceptions of virtue. Machiavelli rejects both the classical ideal of the virtuous statesman and the Christian emphasis on humility and otherworldliness. Instead, he proposes a new understanding of virtue based on effectiveness and the ability to adapt to fortune.

This "lowering of standards" is seen by both Strauss and Mansfield as a key aspect of Machiavelli's modernity. By rejecting absolute moral standards in favor of pragmatic effectiveness, Machiavelli opens the door to moral relativism and realpolitik.

The Centrality of Conflict and War

Strauss and Mansfield both highlight Machiavelli's emphasis on conflict as a fundamental aspect of political life. Unlike classical philosophers who sought harmony and stability, Machiavelli sees politics as inherently conflictual and dynamic.

This focus on conflict extends to international relations, with war playing a central role in Machiavelli's thought. Both scholars argue that Machiavelli's military writings are integral to his political philosophy, not mere technical manuals.

The Malleability of Human Nature

A crucial aspect of Machiavelli's thought for both Strauss and Mansfield is his rejection of a fixed human nature. Unlike classical and Christian thinkers who saw human nature as essentially stable, Machiavelli argues that human beings can be shaped by circumstances and education.

This opens up new possibilities for political action and social engineering, but also raises troubling questions about the limits of human malleability and the potential for tyrannical control.

The Role of Religion in Politics

Both scholars devote significant attention to Machiavelli's analysis of religion as a political tool. Machiavelli's instrumental view of religion as a means of social control represents a radical break with both classical and Christian thought.

Strauss and Mansfield see this as part of Machiavelli's broader project to demystify politics and strip away traditional sources of authority. By treating religion as a human creation rather than a divine revelation, Machiavelli paves the way for secular modernity.

The Founder as Heroic Figure

Machiavelli's emphasis on the role of the founder in establishing new political orders is a key theme for both Strauss and Mansfield. They see Machiavelli as elevating the founder to a quasi-divine status, capable of reshaping human nature and instituting new modes and orders.

This focus on the extraordinary individual as a driver of historical change contrasts with both classical republicanism and Christian providentialism. It points towards modern notions of the "great man" in history and the transformative power of revolutionary leadership.

Implications and Critiques

Strauss and Mansfield's work on Machiavelli has had a profound impact on modern scholarship, but it has also faced significant criticism:

Overinterpretation and Esotericism

Some scholars argue that Strauss and Mansfield read too much into Machiavelli's texts, finding hidden meanings and coherent doctrines where there may be none. The emphasis on esoteric writing in particular has been criticized as unfalsifiable and potentially misleading.

Historical Contextualization

Critics contend that Strauss and Mansfield sometimes neglect the specific historical context of Machiavelli's work in favor of treating him as a transhistorical philosopher. This can lead to anachronistic readings that project modern concerns onto Renaissance texts.

Political Bias

Both Strauss and Mansfield have been accused of allowing their own conservative political views to color their interpretation of Machiavelli. Some argue that they overemphasize Machiavelli's break with tradition while downplaying elements of continuity.

Neglect of Republican Themes

While Strauss and Mansfield do discuss Machiavelli's republicanism, some scholars argue that they underemphasize this aspect of his thought in favor of focusing on more provocative themes. This can lead to a skewed picture of Machiavelli's overall political philosophy.

Machiavelli's Modernity

The claim that Machiavelli single-handedly inaugurated modernity has been challenged by scholars who point to other important intellectual currents in the Renaissance and early modern period. Some argue that Strauss and Mansfield overstate Machiavelli's originality and influence.

Conclusion

Harvey Mansfield and Leo Strauss have profoundly shaped modern understanding of Machiavelli through their provocative and deeply researched interpretations. While their work has faced criticism, it remains hugely influential in Machiavelli studies and political theory more broadly.

Both scholars present Machiavelli as a revolutionary thinker who challenged traditional morality and classical political philosophy. They see him as a key figure in the emergence of modernity, inaugurating new ways of thinking about politics, human nature, and the relationship between philosophy and power.

Strauss's Machiavelli is perhaps the more radical figure - a teacher of evil who deliberately sought to lower moral standards and unleash the destructive forces of modernity. Mansfield's Machiavelli is more complex and ambiguous, a serious moral thinker engaged in a grand project to reshape the world through the long-term influence of his ideas.

Despite their differences, both Strauss and Mansfield highlight Machiavelli's critique of classical and Christian virtue, his emphasis on conflict and war, his view of human nature as malleable, his instrumental approach to religion, and his elevation of the founder as a heroic figure. These themes continue to resonate in contemporary debates about politics, ethics, and the legacy of the Western tradition.

Ultimately, Strauss and Mansfield's work invites us to grapple with Machiavelli not just as a historical figure, but as a thinker who continues to challenge our assumptions and force us to confront difficult questions about the nature of politics and the human condition. Whether we see him as a dangerous subversive or a clear-eyed realist, Machiavelli remains, in their interpretation, an inescapable interlocutor for anyone seeking to understand the origins and dilemmas of our modern world.